-
1 this property is not shared by particles with a finite mass
Универсальный англо-русский словарь > this property is not shared by particles with a finite mass
-
2 infinite
infinite ['ɪnfɪnət](a) (not finite) infini∎ he showed infinite patience il a fait preuve d'une patience infinie;∎ ironic the government, in its infinite wisdom, has decided to close the factory le gouvernement, dans son infinie sagesse, a décidé de fermer l'usine2 nouninfini m►► Mathematics infinite set ensemble m infini -
3 Grammar
I think that the failure to offer a precise account of the notion "grammar" is not just a superficial defect in linguistic theory that can be remedied by adding one more definition. It seems to me that until this notion is clarified, no part of linguistic theory can achieve anything like a satisfactory development.... I have been discussing a grammar of a particular language here as analogous to a particular scientific theory, dealing with its subject matter (the set of sentences of this language) much as embryology or physics deals with its subject matter. (Chomsky, 1964, p. 213)Obviously, every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. This is not to say that he is aware of the rules of grammar or even that he can become aware of them, or that his statements about his intuitive knowledge of his language are necessarily accurate. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 8)Much effort has been devoted to showing that the class of possible transformations can be substantially reduced without loss of descriptive power through the discovery of quite general conditions that all such rules and the representations they operate on and form must meet.... [The] transformational rules, at least for a substantial core grammar, can be reduced to the single rule, "Move alpha" (that is, "move any category anywhere"). (Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 21)4) The Relationship of Transformational Grammar to Semantics and to Human Performancehe implications of assuming a semantic memory for what we might call "generative psycholinguistics" are: that dichotomous judgments of semantic well-formedness versus anomaly are not essential or inherent to language performance; that the transformational component of a grammar is the part most relevant to performance models; that a generative grammar's role should be viewed as restricted to language production, whereas sentence understanding should be treated as a problem of extracting a cognitive representation of a text's message; that until some theoretical notion of cognitive representation is incorporated into linguistic conceptions, they are unlikely to provide either powerful language-processing programs or psychologically relevant theories.Although these implications conflict with the way others have viewed the relationship of transformational grammars to semantics and to human performance, they do not eliminate the importance of such grammars to psychologists, an importance stressed in, and indeed largely created by, the work of Chomsky. It is precisely because of a growing interdependence between such linguistic theory and psychological performance models that their relationship needs to be clarified. (Quillian, 1968, p. 260)here are some terminological distinctions that are crucial to explain, or else confusions can easily arise. In the formal study of grammar, a language is defined as a set of sentences, possibly infinite, where each sentence is a string of symbols or words. One can think of each sentence as having several representations linked together: one for its sound pattern, one for its meaning, one for the string of words constituting it, possibly others for other data structures such as the "surface structure" and "deep structure" that are held to mediate the mapping between sound and meaning. Because no finite system can store an infinite number of sentences, and because humans in particular are clearly not pullstring dolls that emit sentences from a finite stored list, one must explain human language abilities by imputing to them a grammar, which in the technical sense is a finite rule system, or programme, or circuit design, capable of generating and recognizing the sentences of a particular language. This "mental grammar" or "psychogrammar" is the neural system that allows us to speak and understand the possible word sequences of our native tongue. A grammar for a specific language is obviously acquired by a human during childhood, but there must be neural circuitry that actually carries out the acquisition process in the child, and this circuitry may be called the language faculty or language acquisition device. An important part of the language faculty is universal grammar, an implementation of a set of principles or constraints that govern the possible form of any human grammar. (Pinker, 1996, p. 263)A grammar of language L is essentially a theory of L. Any scientific theory is based on a finite number of observations, and it seeks to relate the observed phenomena and to predict new phenomena by constructing general laws in terms of hypothetical constructs.... Similarly a grammar of English is based on a finite corpus of utterances (observations), and it will contain certain grammatical rules (laws) stated in terms of the particular phonemes, phrases, etc., of English (hypothetical constructs). These rules express structural relations among the sentences of the corpus and the infinite number of sentences generated by the grammar beyond the corpus (predictions). (Chomsky, 1957, p. 49)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Grammar
-
4 HIM
[ forma debole ɪm] [ forma forte hɪm]1) (direct object) lo, lui2) (indirect object) gli, a lui3) (after preposition) lui4) colloq.••Note:Him can be translated in Italian by lo, gli and lui. - When used as a direct object pronoun, him is translated by lo (l' before h or a vowel). Note that the object pronoun normally comes before the verb in Italian: I know him = lo conosco; I've already seen him = l'ho già visto. In imperatives (and other non-finite forms), however, lo comes after the verb and is joined to it to form a single word: catch him! = prendilo! When the direct object pronoun is used in emphasis, him is translated by lui which comes after the verb: she loves him, not you = lei ama lui, non te. - When used as an indirect object pronoun, him is translated by gli, which comes before the verb: I've given him the book = gli ho dato il libro. In imperatives (and other non-finite forms), however, gli comes after the verb and is joined to it to form a single word: phone him! = telefonagli! Note that gli becomes glie when another pronoun is used as well: send it to him at once! = mandaglielo subito! we've given it to him = glielo abbiamo dato. - After prepositions, the translation is lui: I did it for him = l'ho fatto per lui; I told him, not her = l'ho detto a lui, non a lei. - Remember that a verb followed by a particle or a preposition in English may correspond to a verb followed by a direct object in Italian, and vice versa, e.g. to look at somebody vs guardare qualcuno and to distrust somebody vs dubitare di qualcuno: look at him! = guardalo! they distrust him = dubitano di lui. - When him is used after as or than in comparative clauses, it is translated by lui: you're as strong as him = tu sei forte come lui; she's younger than him = lei è più giovane di lui. - For particular expressions see below* * *HIMsigla* * *[ forma debole ɪm] [ forma forte hɪm]1) (direct object) lo, lui2) (indirect object) gli, a lui3) (after preposition) lui4) colloq.••Note:Him can be translated in Italian by lo, gli and lui. - When used as a direct object pronoun, him is translated by lo (l' before h or a vowel). Note that the object pronoun normally comes before the verb in Italian: I know him = lo conosco; I've already seen him = l'ho già visto. In imperatives (and other non-finite forms), however, lo comes after the verb and is joined to it to form a single word: catch him! = prendilo! When the direct object pronoun is used in emphasis, him is translated by lui which comes after the verb: she loves him, not you = lei ama lui, non te. - When used as an indirect object pronoun, him is translated by gli, which comes before the verb: I've given him the book = gli ho dato il libro. In imperatives (and other non-finite forms), however, gli comes after the verb and is joined to it to form a single word: phone him! = telefonagli! Note that gli becomes glie when another pronoun is used as well: send it to him at once! = mandaglielo subito! we've given it to him = glielo abbiamo dato. - After prepositions, the translation is lui: I did it for him = l'ho fatto per lui; I told him, not her = l'ho detto a lui, non a lei. - Remember that a verb followed by a particle or a preposition in English may correspond to a verb followed by a direct object in Italian, and vice versa, e.g. to look at somebody vs guardare qualcuno and to distrust somebody vs dubitare di qualcuno: look at him! = guardalo! they distrust him = dubitano di lui. - When him is used after as or than in comparative clauses, it is translated by lui: you're as strong as him = tu sei forte come lui; she's younger than him = lei è più giovane di lui. - For particular expressions see below -
5 Verb: negative form
↑ VerbОтрицательная форма глагола может быть полной или краткой (стяженной). Краткая форма является более разговорной; краткая и полная формы отрицания по-разному образуют вопрос (см. Negative question, 1).1) полная форма:а) Образование отрицательной формы глагола осуществляется присоединением частицы not к вспомогательному глаголу. Частица ставится после глагола, пишется отдельно.were crying — were not crying
has posted — has not posted
б) Для простых настоящего и прошедшего времен в качестве вспомогательного глагола используется глагол do (см. Present simple 1в, Past simple 1в). Отрицательная форма глагола образуется следующим образом: к do в форме соответствующего времени, лица и числа присоединяется not и затем основной глагол в форме инфинитива (Bare infinitive).в) Модальные глаголы ( Modal verbs), а также глагол be и в некоторых случаях have (см. have / have got) образуют отрицательную форму непосредственно присоединением к глаголу частицы not. Отрицательная форма can - cannot - пишется слитно.could stay — could not stay
г) Нефинитные формы глагола (см. Finite and non-finite verbs) тоже присоединяют отрицание без вспомогательного глагола do.sleeping — not sleeping.
2) краткая форма.Краткая форма образуется так же, как и полная, но вместо частицы not к глаголу присоединяется ее сокращенная форма n't, которая пишется и произносится слитно с глаголом. Для вспомогательных глаголов will и shall краткой формой отрицания являются соответственно won't и shan't.is working — is n't working
has been made — has n't been made
will have done — won't have done
•— Отрицательное предложение см. Negative sentence
— Отрицательная форма вопроса см. Negative question
-
6 space
1) интервал, промежуток2) пробел || оставлять пробелы3) область; площадь4) пространство || пространственный5) космос, космическое пространство6) полость7) расстояние•- absolutely compact space - absolutely embedded space - absolutely thick space - algebraically parallel space - almost complex space - almost expandable space - almost isomorphic space - almost metric space - almost nonsingular space - almost paracompact space - almost pretopological space - analytically ramified covering space - arcwise connected space - centrally harmonic space - compactly ordered space - completely continuous space - completely degenerate space - completely disconnected space - completely harmonic space - completely metric space - completely normal space - completely reducible space - completely regular space - completely reticulated space - completely separable space - completely separated space - completely symmetric space - completely uniformizable space - constant curvature space - continuous sample space - continuously ordered space - contractible in itself space - countably compactifiable space - countably dimensional space - countably generated space - countably infinite space - countably metacompact space - countably multinormed space - countably normed space - countably paracompact space - countably refinable space - countably subcompact space - finitely productive space - finitely sheeted space - finitely triangulated space - fully normal space - general metrizable space - general topological space - global analytic space - globally symmetric space - hereditarily normal space - hereditarily paracompact space - hereditarily separable space - hereditarily symmetric space - holomorphic tangent space - holomorphically complete space - holomorphically convex space - homotopy associative space - iterated loop space - linearly connected space - linearly ordered space - linearly topologized space - load space - locally bounded space - locally closed space - locally compact space - locally complete space - locally connected space - locally contractible space - locally convex space - locally directed space - locally fine space - locally holomorphic space - locally homogeneous space - locally hyperbolic space - locally linear space - locally metrizable space - locally ringed space - locally separable space - locally simply connected space - locally solid space - locally spherical space - locally star-shaped space - locally symmetric space - locally timelike space - locally triangulable space - monotonically normal space - naturally isomorphic space - naturally ordered space - naturally reductive space - nearly paracompact space - negative metric space - normally separated space - not simply connected space - nowhere connected space - null space of linear transformation - n-way projective space - perfectly normal space - perfectly regular space - perfectly screenable space - perfectly separable space - peripherically bicompact space - peripherically compact space - pointwise paracompact space - projectively metric space - quaternion hyperbolic space - quaternion projective space - quaternion vector space - regularly ordered space - relatively discrete space - relatively strong space - sequentially closed space - sequentially compact space - sequentially complete space - sequentially quasicomplete space - sequentially separable space - simply ordered space - simply partitionable space - space of affine connectedness - space of complex homomorphisms - space of continuous functions - space of finite measure - space of linear interpolation - space of right cosets - space of scalar curvature - strongly bounded space - strongly closed space - strongly compact space - strongly complete space - strongly irreducible space - strongly normal space - strongly normed space - strongly paracompact space - strongly pseudocompact space - strongly pseudometrizable space - strongly rigid space - strongly screenable space - structural space - structure space - topologically complete space - totally disconnected space - totally geodesic space - totally imperfect space - totally normal space - totally orderable space - totally ordered space - water jacket space - weakly closed space - weakly compact space - weakly complete space - weakly covering space - weakly dense space - weakly favorable space - weakly n-dimensional space - weakly paracompact space - weakly regular space - weakly separable space - weakly symmetric spaceto space out — полигр. набирать вразрядку
-
7 game
̈ɪɡeɪm игра - noisy * шумная игра - indoor *s игры в закрытом помещении - children's *s детские игры - *s of chance, gambling *s азартные игры - foorball * футбол;
игра в футбол - to know a /the/ * знать правила игры;
уметь играть( в игру) - to play the * играть по правилам;
вести честную игру;
поступать честно /порядочно/ - to play a good *, to be a good hand at a * быть хорошим игроком - he plays a good * at cards он хорошо играет в карты - to be on one's * быть в форме, быть в ударе;
хорошо играть - four play that * в эту игру играют вчетвером - let's have a * of cards сыграем в карты? pl спортивные игры;
состязания, соревнования - championship *s игры на первенство - the Olympic *s Олимпийские игры - how's the * going? как идет игра?;
какой счет? - do you play *s? вы играете в какие-л. спортивные игры? игра - this shop sells toys and *s в этом магазине продают игрушки и игры игра, партия, гейм - a * of tennis один гейм в теннис - alternate * нечетная игра, после которой игроки меняются сторонами( теннис) - to win the * выиграть - come and have a * with us идите к нам играть, сыграйте с нами - a * of billiards партия на бильярде - * and * по одной выигранной партии (теннис) - * and set (выигран) гейм и (выиграна) партия (теннис) - to win 4 *s in the first set выиграть 4 гейма в первом сете (теннис) - this * is yours вы выиграли эту игру количество очков, необходимое для выигрыша;
гейм (теннис) - the * is 25 чтобы выиграть, нужно набрать 25 очков счет (во время игры) - the * is four all счет 4: 4 - *s all! счет поровну (баскетбол) - at the half the * was 2: 1 после первой половины игры счет был 2: 1 (спортивное) стиль игры (разговорное) (рискованная) игра, (рискованное) предприятие - stock-market * игра на бирже - the * of politics политическая игра - deep * сложная игра - to play a deep * вести сложную игру;
играть по большой( карты) - losing * безнадежная игра, проигранное дело - to play a losing * вести безнадежную игру - winning * верное /выигрышное/ дело - to play a winning * играть /бить/ наверняка - waiting * выжидательный образ действий, выжидательная политика - to play a waiting * выжидать, придерживаться выжидательной тактики - to play smb.'s *, to play the * of smb. действовать в чьих-л. интересах, играть кому-л. на руку - it's all in the * таковы правила игры - he got into aviation early in the * он связал свою жизнь с авиацией, когда она только начала развиваться замысел, план, проект, дело - to see through smb.'s * разгадать чьи-л. планы;
видеть кого-л. насквозь - what is his *? какие у него планы?, каковы его замыслы? - that's your little *! так вот чего вы хотите!, так вот в чем дело! - I know /I am up to/ his * я знаю, что он задумал /какую игру он ведет/ - I have a hard * to play мне предстоит трудное дело - to spoil /to crab/ smb.'s * испортить чью-л. игру, расстроить /сорвать/ чьи-л. планы - to give the * away выдать секрет, раскрыть чьи-л. планы обыкн. pl увертка, хитрость, "фокус" - none of your (little) *s! (разговорное) бросьте ваши штучки!, без фокусов! - he is up to his old *s again он снова принялся за свои старые штучки /фокусы/, он опять взялся за свое /за старое/ - two can play at that * я могу отплатить той же монетой;
посмотрим еще, чья возьмет - to beat smb. at his own * обойти кого-л., применив те же методы;
побить кого-л. его же собственным оружием шутка, потеха - to make * of smb. высмеивать кого-л., потешаться над кем-л. - to have a * with smb. дурачить кого-л. - you are having a * with me ты меня обманываешь, ты шутишь надо мной - to speak in * говорить в шутку - what a *! какая потеха!, вот потеха! (устаревшее) (диалектизм) развлечение, забава - * and glee сплошное удовольствие дичь - big * крупный зверь;
крупная добыча, победа и т. п. (ради которой пришлось многим рисковать) - fair * дичь, на которую разрешено охотиться;
объект нападок /травли/ - forbidden * дичь, на которую запрещено охотиться;
человек, которого нельзя критиковать дичь, мясо диких уток, куропаток и т. п. объект преследования > easy * легкая добыча;
легковерный человек;
простофиля, простак > the * of war превратности войны > to fly at too high * лелеять честолюбивые мечты;
метить слишком высоко > to throw up the * бросить карты, выйти из игры;
(с) пасовать, признать себя побежденным, сдаться;
отказаться от дальнейшей борьбы > the * is up /over/ дело проиграно, все пропало /провалилось/;
карта бита > the * is (not) worth the candle игра (не) стоит свеч > to have the * in one's (own) hanfs иметь козыри на руках;
быть в выигрышном положении, быть хозяином положения смелый;
боевой;
задорный - he's a * sportsman в нем силен спортивный дух готовый( на что-л.) ;
полный желания, энтузиазма - to be * for /to do/ anything быть готовым на все - all right, I'm * ладно, я не прочь > to die * умереть мужественно;
быть мужественным до конца, держаться до конца играть в азартные игры искалеченный, парализованный( о ноге, руке) advantageous ~ благоприятная игра adventure ~ сюжетная игра adventure-type ~ сюжетная игра artificial ~ искусственная игра autonomous ~ автономная игра auxiliary ~ вспомогательная игра ~ охотно готовый (сделать что-л.) ;
to be game for anything быть готовым на все;
ничего не бояться big ~ крупная дичь, крупный зверь;
перен. желанная добыча business ~ деловая игра coalition ~ коалиционная игра computer ~ компьютерная игра continuous ~ непрерывная игра cooperative ~ коалиционная игра decomposable ~ разложимая игра discrete ~ дискретная игра educational ~ обучающая игра, образовательная игра eluding ~ игра ускользания extensive ~ позиционная игра finite matrix ~ конечный матричная игра four-person ~ игра четырех участников game мясо диких уток, куропаток, зайчатина ~ дичь;
fair game дичь, на которую разрешено охотиться;
перен. (законный) объект нападения;
объект травли ~ дичь ~ замысел, проект, дело ~ спорт. игра, партия;
a game of tennis партия в теннис;
гейм ~ игра;
to play the game играть по правилам;
перен. поступать благородно;
to play a good (poor) game быть хорошим (плохим) игроком ~ игра ~ играть в азартные игры;
game away проиграть ~ искалеченный, парализованный (о руке, ноге) ~ охотно готовый (сделать что-л.) ;
to be game for anything быть готовым на все;
ничего не бояться ~ развлечение, забава;
what a game! как забавно! ~ смелый;
боевой, задорный ~ pl соревнования;
игры ~ уловка, увертка, хитрость, "фокус";
none of your games оставьте эти штуки, без фокусов;
the game is up "карта бита", дело проиграно ~ шутка;
to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.) ;
to make game of высмеивать;
подшучивать;
to speak in game говорить в шутку ~ играть в азартные игры;
game away проиграть ~ in extensive form позиционная игра ~ in normal form игра в нормальной форме ~ in reduced form приведенная игра the ~ is not worth the candle игра не стоит свеч;
two can play at that game = посмотрим еще, чья возьмет ~ уловка, увертка, хитрость, "фокус";
none of your games оставьте эти штуки, без фокусов;
the game is up "карта бита", дело проиграно ~ of chance игра случая ~ of degree вчт. количественная игра ~ of hazard опасная игра ~ of kind вчт. качественная игра ~ of lotto лото( игра) ~ спорт. игра, партия;
a game of tennis партия в теннис;
гейм ~ of timing вчт. игра с выбором момента времени ~ with feedback рекурсивная игра ~ with finite resources игра с конечными ресурсами ~ with infinitely many strategies игра с бесконечным числом стратегий ~ with information lag игра с запаздыванием информации ~ with misperceptions игра при ошибочных предположениях ~ with misperceptions ошибочная игра ~ with saddle point игра с седловой точкой ~ without constraints свободная игра ~ without saddle point игра без седловой точки general ~ игра общего вида generalized ~ обобщенная игра ground ~ наземная дичь;
пушной зверь( зайцы, кролики и т. п.) ~ шутка;
to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.) ;
to make game of высмеивать;
подшучивать;
to speak in game говорить в шутку to have the ~ in one's hands быть уверенным в успехе;
this game is yours вы выиграли infinite ~ бесконечная игра interactive ~ интерактивная игра ~ шутка;
to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.) ;
to make game of высмеивать;
подшучивать;
to speak in game говорить в шутку management ~ деловая игра management ~ управленческая игра markov ~ марковская игра matrix ~ матричная игра matrix ~ прямоугольная игра multistage ~ многошаговая игра network ~ сетевая игра no-solution ~ игра не имеющий решения noncooperative ~ бескоалиционная игра ~ уловка, увертка, хитрость, "фокус";
none of your games оставьте эти штуки, без фокусов;
the game is up "карта бита", дело проиграно nonsymmetric ~ несимметричная игра nonsymmetric ~s несимметричные игры nonzero sum ~ игра с ненулевой суммой one-person ~ игра одного участника one-player ~ игра одного участника one-sided ~ односторонняя игра perfect-information ~ игра с полной информацией ~ игра;
to play the game играть по правилам;
перен. поступать благородно;
to play a good (poor) game быть хорошим (плохим) игроком ~ игра;
to play the game играть по правилам;
перен. поступать благородно;
to play a good (poor) game быть хорошим (плохим) игроком reasonable ~ разумная игра reduced ~ приведенная игра separable ~ разделимая игра smoothed ~ сглаженная игра solvable ~ разрешимая игра solvable ~s разрешимые игры ~ шутка;
to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.) ;
to make game of высмеивать;
подшучивать;
to speak in game говорить в шутку stable ~ устойчивая игра stochastic ~ стохастическая игра stochastic ~s стохастические игры strategically equivalent ~s игры с эквивалентными стратегиями to have the ~ in one's hands быть уверенным в успехе;
this game is yours вы выиграли training ~ учебная игра truncated ~ усеченная игра the ~ is not worth the candle игра не стоит свеч;
two can play at that game = посмотрим еще, чья возьмет two: to put ~ and ~ together сообразить что к чему;
two can play at that game посмотрим еще, чья возьмет two-sided ~ двухсторонняя игра unhomogeneous ~ неоднородная игра unsolvable ~ неразрешимая игра ~ развлечение, забава;
what a game! как забавно! zero-sum ~ игра с нулевым исходом -
8 element
2) (гальванический) элемент, первичный источник тока•-
flip-flop pneumatic logic element
-
off delay timer pneumatic logic element
-
on delay timer pneumatic logic element
-
acid-forming element
-
acoustic element
-
active element
-
actuating element
-
adaptive element
-
adding element
-
addition element
-
age-hardening element
-
alkaline elements
-
alkaline-earth elements
-
alloying element
-
analog element
-
analog memory element
-
AND element
-
annular fuel element
-
array element
-
austenite promoting element
-
ball-type element
-
bare fuel element
-
bearing element
-
bending element
-
bidirectional filter element
-
bimorph element
-
binary element
-
bistable element
-
bonded fuel element
-
boundary element
-
breeder fuel element
-
breeder element
-
C element
-
capacitance element
-
capacitor element
-
center-tapped element
-
chemical element
-
circuit element
-
cleanable filter element
-
coarse filter element
-
code element
-
commutation element
-
comparison element
-
compression element
-
computing element
-
conditioning element
-
conducting element
-
conductive plastic element
-
contacting element
-
control element
-
coolant maintenance element
-
coupling element
-
crack tip element
-
crystal element
-
current-responsive element
-
daisywheel typing element
-
damping element
-
data element
-
decision element
-
delay element
-
detectable element
-
detecting element
-
digital element
-
discrete element
-
display element
-
dissipative element
-
distorting element
-
distributed-constant element
-
distributed element
-
drafting element
-
driven element
-
driving element
-
dummy element
-
dummy filter element
-
dynamic element
-
electric heating element
-
electrical element
-
electroluminescence element
-
electronic element
-
element of length
-
element of matrix
-
element of surface of revolution
-
enclosing program element
-
end-fed element
-
end-fire element
-
engine wear elements
-
equally spaced elements
-
equivalence element
-
errorprone element
-
exclusive OR element
-
executive element
-
expansion element
-
expendable filter element
-
factory-made element
-
fed element
-
feed element
-
felt element
-
ferrite promoting element
-
fertile fuel element
-
filler element
-
film registration element
-
filter element
-
final control element
-
finite element
-
finned fuel element
-
flexural element
-
fluid element
-
friction element
-
fuel element
-
fuse element
-
glass-forming element
-
golf-ball typing element
-
graphite-carbon cloth friction element
-
hardening element
-
heat-absorbing element
-
heater element
-
heat-exchange element
-
heating element
-
heat-protection element
-
higher-order element
-
hollow fuel element
-
hook-up element
-
IC element
-
identity element
-
image element
-
impurity element
-
inclusive OR element
-
indicator element
-
inside-out flow filter element
-
instantaneous element
-
interacting jet element
-
interstitial element
-
isoparametric element
-
knitting elements
-
L element
-
lamp sealed element
-
lens element
-
light-sensitive element
-
lineal element
-
list element
-
logical element
-
logic element
-
long-exposure fuel element
-
loop-forming elements
-
lossless element
-
lossy element
-
low-boiling element
-
lumped-constant element
-
lumped element
-
M element
-
magnet filter element
-
magnetic element
-
magnox fuel element
-
majority decision element
-
majority element
-
master element
-
matrix element
-
measuring element
-
memory element
-
memory pneumatic logic element
-
metal edge filter element
-
metal screen filter element
-
modular filter element
-
motor element
-
movable genetic element
-
movable operating element
-
moving element
-
NAND element
-
negation element
-
nondimensioned element
-
nondissipative element
-
nonequivalent element
-
nonlinear element
-
nonradiating element
-
NOR element
-
NOT element
-
NOT-AND element
-
NOTOR element
-
omnidirectional element
-
optical logic element
-
OR element
-
outside-in flow filter element
-
paper element
-
parasitic element
-
passive element
-
Peltier element
-
photographic element
-
picture element
-
piezoelectric ceramic element
-
piezoelectric crystal element
-
piezoelectric load measuring element
-
plain filter element
-
pleated filter element
-
plug-in element
-
poison element
-
precast element
-
prefabricated element
-
prestressed element
-
primary air cleaner element
-
primary element
-
prismatic fuel element
-
processing element
-
program element
-
pump barret element
-
pump element
-
pure fluid element
-
radiating element
-
rare earth elements
-
rectifying element
-
reference element
-
reinforcing element
-
residual element
-
resistance element
-
resistive element
-
resistor element
-
resolution element
-
ribbon fuel element
-
rod-type fuel element
-
rubbing element
-
safety element
-
scanning element
-
scene element
-
screening filter element
-
sealing element
-
secondary air cleaner element
-
self-cleaning filter element
-
semiconductor element
-
sensing element
-
signal element
-
simplex element
-
single element
-
solar collector element
-
solid finite element
-
solute hardener element
-
springing element
-
stabilizing element
-
standard element
-
static element
-
stiffening element
-
storage element
-
strain-sensing element
-
structural element
-
switching element
-
synthetic fiber filter element
-
tape-guiding element
-
target element
-
tensile element
-
thermal element
-
thermally sensitive element
-
thermoelectric element
-
thermostatic element
-
thorium-base fuel element
-
threshold element
-
throwaway filter element
-
time element
-
timing element
-
torsional element
-
trace element
-
tracer elements
-
transfer elements
-
transitional element
-
tread element
-
trimming element
-
tubular electric heating element
-
tubular fuel element
-
tuning element
-
two stage filter element
-
two-terminal element
-
typing element
-
unbonded fuel element
-
undriven element
-
uranium-base fuel element
-
water absorption filter element
-
wound-wire filter element
-
woven screen filter element -
9 function
1) функция, назначение || функционировать, действовать2) матем. функция•- abnormal function
- access function
- additive function
- address function
- adherence function
- aggregate function
- analog function
- AND function
- AND-to-OR function
- antihyperbolic function
- antitrigonometric function
- arbitrary Boolean function
- arc hyperbolic function
- arc trigonometric function
- array element successor function
- assumed function
- autocorrelation function
- band-limited function
- basis function
- belief function
- blending function
- Boolean function
- buffer function
- built-in function
- characteristic function
- circuit function
- closed function
- collate function
- completely defined function
- composite function
- computable function
- computer function
- concave function
- continuous function
- control function
- convex function
- correlation function
- course-of-value function
- criterion function
- cross-correlation function
- curried function
- dagger function
- damped function
- decision function
- decreasing function
- degate function
- delta function
- demand function
- describing function
- difference function
- discrete finite-valued function
- distribution function
- driving function
- EITHER-OR function
- elliptic function
- entire function
- entire rational function
- entity-to-entity function
- enumerative function
- error function
- essential functions
- evaluation function
- even function
- except function
- exclusive OR function
- executive function
- explicit function
- exponential function
- exponent function
- exponentially decreasing function
- external function
- failure density function
- failure rate function
- feedback function
- finite discrete-valued function
- finite-valued function
- fitted function
- frequency function
- general function
- generalized function
- generating function
- generic function
- hashing function
- hash function
- ill-behaved function
- ill-defined function
- illegal function
- implicit function
- inclusive OR function
- infinite-valued function
- infrared function
- inhibit function
- internal function
- intrinsic function
- inverse function
- joint distribution function
- jump function
- key function
- K-out-of-N function
- library function
- list function
- logical function
- logic function
- logical addition function
- logical multiplication function
- logistic function
- majority function
- membership function
- merit function
- mixed-radix function
- moment-generating function
- morphic Boolean function
- morphic function
- multioutput function
- multiple-valued function
- noncomputable function
- normal function
- NOT function
- nullary function
- objective function
- odd function
- one-valued function
- onto function
- open function
- OR function
- OR-ELSE function
- output function
- partial function
- payoff function
- Peirce function
- penalty function
- piece linear function
- piece regular function
- piecewise continuous function
- positive definite function
- power function
- predefined function
- primitive function
- processing function
- propositional function
- ramp function
- random function
- ranking function
- reckonable function
- recursive function
- remainder function
- response function
- risk function
- safety-related function
- scalar function
- service function
- Sheffer stroke function
- Sheffer function
- shifting function
- shuffle function
- signal function
- signum function
- single-output function
- single-valued function
- smoothed function
- spectral function
- staircase function
- standard function
- statement function
- step function
- storage function
- strictly increasing function
- successor function
- support function
- switching function
- syntactic function
- table function
- testing function
- threshold function
- transfer function
- transition function
- traversal function
- unate function
- unit-impulse function
- universal function
- utility function
- vector function
- weight function
- weighted sum objective function
- weighting functionEnglish-Russian dictionary of computer science and programming > function
-
10 have / have got
↑ VerbОба глагола имеют значение "иметь", "обладать". Хотя have got происходит из формы настоящего совершенного от глагола get, но в современном языке имеет то же значение, что и простые формы have. Существуют, однако, некоторые различия в их употреблении.а) В настоящем времени чаще употребляется have got. При образовании вопроса (см. Question) и отрицания (см. Verb: negative form) have в выражении have got ведет себя как вспомогательный глагол.I 've got two brothers. — У меня два брата.
б) В прошедшем времени выражение have got употребляется редко.you have good teachers when you were at school? (* Had you got good teachers...) — У тебя в школе были хорошие учителя?в) Got не употребляется с нефинитными формами have (Finite and non-finite verbs).I would like to have (*have got) a new car. — Я бы хотел иметь новую машину.
а) В британском варианте английского языка have употребляется в основном для описания повторяющихся действий; в американском варианте такого ограничения нет.б) В британском английском (в формальном стиле) have иногда может образовывать вопросы и отрицания как вспомогательный глагол (см. Yes-No question 1, Verb: negative form). В американском английском вопросы и отрицания с have образуются по общей модели.He does not deny that astrology may contain the truth, but he realises that men have not knowledge enough to find it. — Он не отрицает, что в астрологии может содержаться истина, но сознает, что у человечества недостаточно знаний, чтобы ее обнаружить.
г) В разговорном американском английском возможно опущение 've (но не 's) перед got.I got something to tell you. (амер.) — Я хочу тебе что-то сказать.
*
She got something to tell you — Она хочет тебе что-то сказать.д) В американском английском, особенно при кратком ответе (Short answers) и в расчлененном вопросе (Tag question), возможно смешение форм have и have got. Так, в приведенном ниже примере в первой части вопроса употреблен глагол have got, а во второй части - вспомогательный глагол do, соответствующий глаголу have.I don't think we 've got any choice, do we? (амер.). — По-моему, у нас нет выбора.
-
11 game
[̈ɪɡeɪm]advantageous game благоприятная игра adventure game сюжетная игра adventure-type game сюжетная игра artificial game искусственная игра autonomous game автономная игра auxiliary game вспомогательная игра game охотно готовый (сделать что-л.); to be game for anything быть готовым на все; ничего не бояться big game крупная дичь, крупный зверь; перен. желанная добыча business game деловая игра coalition game коалиционная игра computer game компьютерная игра continuous game непрерывная игра cooperative game коалиционная игра decomposable game разложимая игра discrete game дискретная игра educational game обучающая игра, образовательная игра eluding game игра ускользания extensive game позиционная игра finite matrix game конечный матричная игра four-person game игра четырех участников game мясо диких уток, куропаток, зайчатина game дичь; fair game дичь, на которую разрешено охотиться; перен. (законный) объект нападения; объект травли game дичь game замысел, проект, дело game спорт. игра, партия; a game of tennis партия в теннис; гейм game игра; to play the game играть по правилам; перен. поступать благородно; to play a good (poor) game быть хорошим (плохим) игроком game игра game играть в азартные игры; game away проиграть game искалеченный, парализованный (о руке, ноге) game охотно готовый (сделать что-л.); to be game for anything быть готовым на все; ничего не бояться game развлечение, забава; what a game! как забавно! game смелый; боевой, задорный game pl соревнования; игры game уловка, увертка, хитрость, "фокус"; none of your games оставьте эти штуки, без фокусов; the game is up "карта бита", дело проиграно game шутка; to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.); to make game of высмеивать; подшучивать; to speak in game говорить в шутку game играть в азартные игры; game away проиграть game in extensive form позиционная игра game in normal form игра в нормальной форме game in reduced form приведенная игра the game is not worth the candle игра не стоит свеч; two can play at that game = посмотрим еще, чья возьмет game уловка, увертка, хитрость, "фокус"; none of your games оставьте эти штуки, без фокусов; the game is up "карта бита", дело проиграно game of chance игра случая game of degree вчт. количественная игра game of hazard опасная игра game of kind вчт. качественная игра game of lotto лото (игра) game спорт. игра, партия; a game of tennis партия в теннис; гейм game of timing вчт. игра с выбором момента времени game with feedback рекурсивная игра game with finite resources игра с конечными ресурсами game with infinitely many strategies игра с бесконечным числом стратегий game with information lag игра с запаздыванием информации game with misperceptions игра при ошибочных предположениях game with misperceptions ошибочная игра game with saddle point игра с седловой точкой game without constraints свободная игра game without saddle point игра без седловой точки general game игра общего вида generalized game обобщенная игра ground game наземная дичь; пушной зверь (зайцы, кролики и т. п.) game шутка; to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.); to make game of высмеивать; подшучивать; to speak in game говорить в шутку to have the game in one's hands быть уверенным в успехе; this game is yours вы выиграли infinite game бесконечная игра interactive game интерактивная игра game шутка; to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.); to make game of высмеивать; подшучивать; to speak in game говорить в шутку management game деловая игра management game управленческая игра markov game марковская игра matrix game матричная игра matrix game прямоугольная игра multistage game многошаговая игра network game сетевая игра no-solution game игра не имеющий решения noncooperative game бескоалиционная игра game уловка, увертка, хитрость, "фокус"; none of your games оставьте эти штуки, без фокусов; the game is up "карта бита", дело проиграно nonsymmetric game несимметричная игра nonsymmetric games несимметричные игры nonzero sum game игра с ненулевой суммой one-person game игра одного участника one-player game игра одного участника one-sided game односторонняя игра perfect-information game игра с полной информацией game игра; to play the game играть по правилам; перен. поступать благородно; to play a good (poor) game быть хорошим (плохим) игроком game игра; to play the game играть по правилам; перен. поступать благородно; to play a good (poor) game быть хорошим (плохим) игроком reasonable game разумная игра reduced game приведенная игра separable game разделимая игра smoothed game сглаженная игра solvable game разрешимая игра solvable games разрешимые игры game шутка; to have a game with дурачить (кого-л.); to make game of высмеивать; подшучивать; to speak in game говорить в шутку stable game устойчивая игра stochastic game стохастическая игра stochastic games стохастические игры strategically equivalent games игры с эквивалентными стратегиями to have the game in one's hands быть уверенным в успехе; this game is yours вы выиграли training game учебная игра truncated game усеченная игра the game is not worth the candle игра не стоит свеч; two can play at that game = посмотрим еще, чья возьмет two: to put game and game together сообразить что к чему; two can play at that game посмотрим еще, чья возьмет two-sided game двухсторонняя игра unhomogeneous game неоднородная игра unsolvable game неразрешимая игра game развлечение, забава; what a game! как забавно! zero-sum game игра с нулевым исходом -
12 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
13 value
ˈvælju:
1. сущ.
1) а) ценность;
справедливое возмещение, справедливая оценка Syn: merit б) мн. достоинства, ценности to cherish values, to foster values ≈ культивировать, пропагандировать какие-л. ценности enduring values ≈ стойкие принципы Victorian values ≈ устои викторианского общества cultural values ≈ культурные ценности moral values ≈ моральные ценности sense of values ≈ моральные критерии spiritual values ≈ духовные ценности
2) а) стоимость, цена at a certain value ≈ по определенной цене contract value of the goods ≈ стоимость товаров по контракту to place, put, set a value on ≈ назначить цену They paid him the value of his lost property. ≈ Они возместили ему стоимость его пропавшего имущества. assessed value book value cash value face value fair value intrinsic value market value nominal value present value token value б) экон. стоимость surplus value ≈ прибавочная стоимость exchange value ≈ меновая стоимость
3) а) значение, смысл( о слове) to acquire value, take on value ≈ приобретать значение, приобретать смысл a discovery of great value ≈ очень важное открытие;
открытие, имеющее большое значение to attach value to ≈ придавать значение чему-л. б) мат., комп. величина, значение absolute value ≈ абсолютная величина, абсолютное значение numerical value ≈ численное значение в) муз. длительность (ноты) г) живоп. сочетание света и тени в картине
2. гл.
1) оценивать, производить оценку, устанавливать цену to value a painting at five thousand pounds ≈ оценить картину в пять тысяч фунтов
2) дорожить, ценить, быть высокого мнения, отдавать должное to value highly, to value very much ≈ высоко ценить кого-л./что-л. to value smb. as a friend ≈ считать кого-л. другом He values himself on his genealogy. ≈ Он гордится своей родословной. ценность;
важность;
полезность - the * of exercise важное значение моциона - to set a high * on smth. высоко ценить что-л.;
придавать большое значение чему-л.;
дорожить чем-л. - to set a low * on smth. считать несущественным что-л., не придавать большого значения чему-л. - to set too high a * upon smth. переоценивать что-л. - to know the * of time ценить свое время - he had nothing of * to say он не сказал ничего интересного pl ценности - moral *s моральные ценности - sense of *s моральные критерии;
этическое сознание;
представление о добре и зле - to seek material *s instead of human стремиться к материальным, а не к общечеловеческим ценностям значение, смысл (слова) - to give full * to each word чеканить слова - the precise * of a word точный смысл слова - the word is used with all its poetic * слово используестя во всей его поэтической силе ценность, стоимость - to pay the * of lost property полностью возместить стоимость утраченного имущества - * journey путешествие, оправдывающее затраты - * for money ценность в сравнении с уплаченной суммой - he gives you * for your money за ваши деньги вы получаете от него хороший товар;
сделка выгодна - he got good * for him money он удачно купил (что-л.) (экономика) цена;
стоимость (в денежном выражении) - * letter ценное письмо - сommercial * рыночная стоимость;
продажная цена - market * курсовая стоимость;
рыночная стоимость - nominal * наричательная цена;
номинальная стоимость, номинал - current *s существующие цены;
текущие показатели - declared * объявленная стоимость( в таможенной декларации) - at * по цене - under * ниже стоимости - * of gold стоимость золота - in terms of * в стоимостном выражении - to lose in * упасть в цене - jewels to the * of four thousand dollars драгоценности стоимостью в 4 тысячи долларов - the * of a dollar fluctuates покупательная сила доллара колеблется (политика) (экономика) стоимость - exchange * меновая стоимость - surplus * прибавочная стоимость (финансовое) валюта;
сумма векселя или тратты;
эквивалент( суммы векселя) - * date срок векселя;
дата зачисления денег на банковский счет - for * received эквивалент получен (фраза в тексте тратты) (специальное) величина, значение - absolute * абсолютная величина, абсолютное значение - initial * исходная величина;
данное значение - iodine * йодное число - crest * амплитуда;
амплитудное, пиковое значение - heating * теплотворная способность - numerical * (математика) численное значение - radiation * коэффициент излучения - geographical *s географические координаты - Greenwich * (география) долгота от Гринвичского меридиана - field *s полевые данные, даные полевого журнала - to throw away a * пренебречь какой-л. величиной( музыкальное) длительность ноты или паузы (искусство) валер;
соотношение тонов - * of colour, colour * интенсивность цвета;
насыщенность цветового тона - out of * слишком темно;
слишком светло (фонетика) качество - acute accent has not always the same * острое ударение не всегда одного качества > to accept smth. at face * принимать что-л. за чистую монету;
понимать буквально оценивать, давать оценку( в денежном выражении) - to * a house at оценить дом в 800 ф. ст. - I do not * that a brass farthing по-моему, это гроша ломаного не стоит оценивать, определять значение, полезность и т. п. дорожить, ценить - to * oneself on smth. гордиться чем-л. - to * smth. above rubies ценить что-л. дороже золота - I * your friendship я ценю вашу дружбу, я дорожу дружбой с вами( финансовое) трассировать, выставлять вексель или тратту - to * on a person трассировать на кого-л.;
выставить вексель или тратту на кого-л. absolute ~ абсолютная величина access ~ вчт. ссылочное значение accounting par ~ учет по номинальной стоимости acquisition ~ стоимость покупки acquisition ~ цена покупки acquisition ~ ценность приобретения actual ~ действительная стоимость actual ~ действительная ценность actual ~ вчт. истинное значение actual ~ реализованная стоимость actual ~ реальная ценность actual ~ фактический показатель added ~ добавленная стоимость added ~ добавочная стоимость added ~ добавочная ценность added ~ стоимость, добавленная обработкой additional ~ дополнительная стоимость additional ~ дополнительная ценностть additive ~ аддитивная величина advertising ~ стоимость рекламы advertising ~ ценность рекламы aggregate ~ совокупная стоимость agreed ~ согласованная стоимость amortized book ~ остаточная стоимость списанного имущества annual current ~ годовая текущая стоимость appraised ~ оценочная стоимость appraised ~ стоимость по оценке appreciated ~ высокая ценность arbitrary ~ условная стоимость assessed cash ~ недв. денежная стоимость по оценке assessed cash ~ недв. оценочная стоимость в наличных деньгах assessed site ~ налог. оценка участка для застройки assessed ~ налог. оценка стоимости assessed ~ налог. оценочная стоимость assessed ~ налог. стоимость по оценке assessed ~ ценность assessment ~ налог. оценочная стоимость asymptotic ~ асимптотическое значение asymptotically optimum ~ асимптотически оптимальное значение at par ~ по номинальной стоимости at par ~ по паритету attribute ~ вчт. значение атрибута barter ~ стоимость бартерного обмена bona fide purchaser for ~ добросовестный покупатель на возмездных началах bona fide purchaser for ~ добросовестный покупатель при встречном удовлетворении book ~ балансовая стоимость активов book ~ нетто-активы book ~ нетто-капитал book ~ остаточная стоимость основного капитала book ~ полная стоимость капитала book ~ стоимость чистых активов компании в расчете на одну акцию booked ~ нетто-капитал boolean ~ вчт. логическое значение break-up ~ капитал компании break-up ~ разница между активами и текущими обязательствами break-up ~ разница между заемным капиталом и привилегированными акциями budgeted ~ сметная стоимость business ~ ценность бизнеса by ~ вчт. по значению calculated ~ вчт. расчетное значение capital ~ величина капитала capital ~ стоимость капитального имущества capital ~ стоимость основного капитала capitalized earnings ~ дисконтированная стоимость доходов capitalized ~ дисконтированная стоимость capitalized ~ of potential earnings дисконтированная стоимость потенциальных доходов carrying ~ балансовая стоимость активов carrying ~ нетто-активы carrying ~ остаточная стоимость основного капитала carrying ~ чистый капитал cash property ~ стоимость имущества в наличных деньгах cash surrender ~ выкупная стоимость cash ~ денежная стоимость cash ~ денежная ценность cash ~ стоимость в наличных деньгах certainty ~ вероятность certainty ~ значение показателя достоверности check ~ вчт. контрольное число clearance ~ стоимость реализации collateral ~ дополнительная ценность color ~ вчт. код цвета commercial ~ коммерческая ценность commercial ~ продажная цена commercial ~ рыночная стоимость commercial ~ стоимость по продажным ценам communication ~ стоимость передачи рекламы compulsory purchase ~ стоимость конфискованной собственности conditional expected ~ условное математическое ожидание conditionally optimal ~ условнооптимальное значение constant ~ постоянная стоимость control ~ вчт. контрольное значение conversion ~ конверсионная стоимость conversion ~ стоимость, созданная путем превращения одной формы собственности в другую cost ~ величина издержек cost ~ величина расходов cost ~ первоначальная стоимость cost ~ себестоимость cost ~ стоимость издержек credibility ~ степень доверия critical ~ критическое значение ~ pl ценности, достоинства;
cultural values культурные ценности;
sense of values моральные критерии current market ~ цен. бум. текущая курсовая стоимость current market ~ цен.бум. текущая рыночная стоимость current ~ действующая величина current ~ приведенная стоимость current ~ существующая цена current ~ существующая ценность current ~ текущая стоимость current ~ текущее значение customs ~ таможенная ценность customs ~ ценность ввозимых товаров, определенная таможней declared ~ заявленая ценность declared ~ объявленная ценность default ~ вчт. значение, присваиваемое по умолчанию default ~ значение по умолчанию depreciable ~ остаточная стоимость design ~ расчетное значение desired ~ ожидаемое значение distributional ~ распределенная стоимость domain ~ вчт. значение домена dutiable ~ ценность, подлежащая обложению пошлиной earned ~ прибавочная стоимость earning capacity ~ величина потенциального дохода индивидуумов effective ~ действительная ценность effective ~ эффективное значение empty ~ фиктивное значение end ~ конечное значение entered ~ сумма, внесенная в бухгалтерский отчет equity ~ стоимость акционерного капитала equity ~ стоимость обыкновенной акции equivalent ~ эквивалентная стоимость equivalent ~ эквивалентное значение esthetic ~ эстетическая ценность estimated ~ оценка стоимости estimated ~ рассчитанная ценность estimated ~ расчетная стоимость evidentiary ~ доказательное значение excess ~ чрезмерная величина exchange ~ меновая стоимость exchange ~ of goods supplied меновая стоимость поставленных товаров expectation ~ математическое ожидание expectation ~ стат. ожидаемое значение expected ~ математическое ожидание expected ~ ожидаемое значение external ~ интернациональная стоимость extreme ~ экстремальное значение fair ~ стоимость в текущих ценах fictitious ~ фиктивная величина fictitious ~ фиктивная стоимость final ~ окончательное значение final ~ результирующее значение financial reduction in ~ снижение финансовой стоимости finite ~ конечное значение fitted ~ подобранное значение fixed ~ фиксированная стоимость fixup ~ координаты местоположения free mortgageable ~ свободно закладываемая ценность to get good ~ for one's money получить сполна за свои деньги, выгодно купить;
to go down in value понизиться в цене, подешеветь;
обесцениться ~ значение, смысл (слова) ;
to give full value to each word отчеканивать слова given ~ заданная величина to get good ~ for one's money получить сполна за свои деньги, выгодно купить;
to go down in value понизиться в цене, подешеветь;
обесцениться going concern ~ стоимость действующего предприятия good ~ стоимость товара gross book ~ валовая стоимость капитала gross book ~ первоначальная стоимость основного капитала gross book ~ полная стоимость капитала gross book ~ полная стоимость основных производственных фондов gross book ~ стоимость в ценах приобретения gross residual ~ валовая ликвидационная стоимость gross residual ~ валовая остаточная стоимость основного капитала hack ~ вчт. программистский трюк ~ дорожить, ценить;
he values himself on his knowledge он гордится своими знаниями;
I do not value that a brass farthing = помоему, это гроша ломаного не стоит heating ~ теплотворная способность high ~ верхнее значение human ~ человеческая ценность hypothetical ~ гипотетическое значение ~ дорожить, ценить;
he values himself on his knowledge он гордится своими знаниями;
I do not value that a brass farthing = помоему, это гроша ломаного не стоит improvement ~ стоимость усовершенствования imputed rent ~ оценочная стоимость ренты imputed rent ~ расчетная стоимость ренты increment ~ величина прироста informative ~ ценность информации initial ~ начальное значение input ~ вчт. входная величина insurable ~ страховая стоимость insurable ~ ценность, могущая быть застрахованной insured ~ застрахованная стоимость insured ~ застрахованная ценность insured ~ страховая оценка intangible ~ стоимость нематериальных активов integral ~ целое число integral ~ целочисленное значение internal ~ стоимость на внутреннем рынке interpolated ~ интерполированное значение intrinsic ~ внутренняя ценность intrinsic ~ действительная стоимость inventory ~ инвентарная ценность invoice ~ стоимость согласно счету-фактуре item ~ значение элемента данных junk ~ стоимость утиля land expectation ~ ожидаемая стоимость земли land ~ стоимость земельной собственности land ~ стоимость земли lending ~ стоимость ссуды letting ~ размер арендной платы limit ~ предельное значение liquidation ~ ликвидационная стоимость liquidation ~ стоимость реализации loan ~ максимальный размер кредита брокеру в форме процента от стоимости ценных бумаг loan ~ размер кредита loan ~ стоимость займа loan ~ стоимость кредита loan ~ сумма, которую кредитор готов предоставить под данное обеспечение loan ~ сумма, которая может быть получена страхователем loan ~ сумма займа lose ~ обесцениваться low ~ нижнее значение maintained ~ поддерживаемая стоимость market ~ биржевая стоимость market ~ курсовая стоимость market ~ меновая стоимость market ~ рыночная стоимость market-to-book ~ отношение рыночной цены акции к ее первоначальной стоимости marketable ~ курсовая стоимость marketable ~ рыночная стоимость material ~ материальная ценность mathematical ~ математическая величина maximum ~ максимальная стоимость maximum ~ максимальная ценность mean ~ математическое ожидание mean ~ среднее mean ~ среднее значение median ~ медиана minimum ~ минимальная стоимость modal ~ вчт. мода modal ~ наиболее вероятное значение monetary ~ денежная ценность money ~ денежная оценка money ~ денежная ценность money ~ оценка в денежном выражении money ~ оценка в ценностном выражении net asset ~ стоимость имущества за вычетом обязательств net asset ~ чистая номинальная стоимость активов net book ~ балансовая стоимость активов net book ~ нетто-активы net book ~ нетто-капитал net book ~ остаточная стоимость основного капитала net book ~ полная стоимость капитала net book ~ полная стоимость основных производственных фондов net book ~ чистая стоимость капитала net book ~ чистый капитал net capital ~ чистая стоимость реального основного капитала net realizable ~ чистая реализуемая стоимость net replacement ~ чистая восстановительная стоимость net replacement ~ чистая стоимость страхового возмещения net ~ стоимость нетто net ~ чистая стоимость no commercial ~ (NCV) не имеет коммерческой ценности no customs ~ таможенной пошлиной не облагается nominal ~ нарицательная цена nominal ~ номинал nominal ~ номинальная величина nominal ~ номинальная стоимость nominal ~ номинальная ценность nonguaranteed residual ~ негарантированная остаточная стоимость normal market ~ нормальная рыночная стоимость novelty ~ стоимость новинки numerical ~ численная величина numerical ~ численное значение numerical ~ числовое значение observed ~ наблюденная величина ~ ценность;
of no value нестоящий, не имеющий ценности;
to put much (little) value (upon smth.) высоко (низко) ценить (что-л.) of no ~ не имеющий ценности operating ~ стоимость основной деятельности original ~ первоначальная стоимость ostensible ~ мнимая ценность overall ~ полная стоимость paid-up policy ~ стоимость оплаченного страхового полиса par ~ номинал par ~ номинальная стоимость par ~ номинальная стоимость облигации par ~ номинальная стоимость ценной бумаги par ~ паритет par ~ паритет валюты permissible ~ допустимое значение portfolio ~ стоимость портфеля ценных бумаг possess the ~ принимать значение present utilization ~ текущая потребительская стоимость present ~ настоящая ценность present ~ текущая стоимость present ~ текущая цена price-to-book ~ остаточная стоимость основного капитала principal ~ номинальная стоимость probative ~ доказательная ценность production ~ стоимость продукции productive ~ производственная ценность property tax ~ оценка недвижимости для налогообложения property tax ~ стоимость имущества, облагаемая налогом property ~ стоимость недвижимости public assessment ~ стоимость при государственной оценке publicity ~ значение рекламы ~ ценность;
of no value нестоящий, не имеющий ценности;
to put much (little) value (upon smth.) высоко (низко) ценить (что-л.) quotation ~ бирж. котировочная стоимость quoted ~ объявленная ценность rateable ~ облагаемая стоимость real estate ~ стоимость недвижимости real property ~ стоимость недвижимости real ~ действительная стоимость, ценность real ~ реальная стоимость real ~ реальная ценность realizable ~ достижимая величина realizable ~ реализуемая стоимость realization ~ реализованная стоимость realization ~ цена фактической продажи realized ~ достигнутая величина reciprocal ~ обратная величина recovery ~ возможная стоимость при продаже объекта основного капитала recovery ~ ликвидационная стоимость redemption ~ выкупная стоимость reduction ~ величина скидки reduction ~ величина снижения reference ~ исходная стоимость reinstatement ~ восстановительная стоимость rental ~ величина арендной платы rental ~ расчетная арендная плата replacement ~ восстановительная стоимость replacement ~ оценка по восстановительной стоимости replacement ~ стоимость страхового возмещения repurchase ~ выкупная стоимость residual ~ ликвидационная стоимость residual ~ остаточная стоимость основного капитала reversion ~ стоимость возврата rounded ~ округленное значение saddle ~ седловое значение sales ~ общая стоимость продаж sales ~ общая стоимость проданных товаров salvage ~ стоимость спасенного имущества salvage ~ сумма, которую можно выручить за спасенное имущество в случае его немедленной реализации salvaged ~ стоимость спасенного имущества sample ~ выборочное значение scalar ~ скалярная величина scrap ~ стоимость изделия, сдаваемого в утиль scrap ~ стоимость лома scrap ~ стоимость металлического лома scrap ~ стоимость скрапа search ~ искомое значение selling ~ продажная цена ~ pl ценности, достоинства;
cultural values культурные ценности;
sense of values моральные критерии sentimental ~ чувствительность set ~ заданное значение shareholder ~ биржевая стоимость акции significance ~ уровень значимости significant ~ значимая величина site ~ стоимость строительной площадки smoothed ~ сглаженное значение soil expectation ~ ожидаемая ценность почвы stated ~ объявленная ценность steady-state ~ стационарное значение stepped-up ~ добавленная стоимость stock ~ стоимость акций stock ~ стоимость запасов street ~ внебиржевая стоимость table ~ табличное значение tabular ~ табличное значение tangible ~ стоимость реальных активов taxable ~ облагаемая налогом стоимость активов taxable ~ стоимость, подлежащая налогообложению text ~ вчт. текстовое значение theoretical ~ теоретическая стоимость ~ стоимость;
цена;
справедливое возмещение;
they paid him the value of his lost property они возместили ему стоимость его пропавшего имущества threshold limit ~ нижнее пороговое значение threshold ~ пороговое значение today's ~ сегодняшняя стоимость total ~ общая величина trade ~ продажная цена trade ~ рыночная стоимость trade ~ торговая ценность tradeable ~ продажная цена tradeable ~ рыночная стоимость traffic ~ вчт. нагрузка линии связи transaction ~ рыночная стоимость transactions ~ рыночная стоимость trend ~ значение тренда trifling ~ незначительная стоимость true ~ истинная ценность true ~ истинное значение truth ~ истинностное значение unit ~ средняя цена единицы продукции unit ~ средняя цена товарной единицы unit ~ стоимость единичного изделия unmortgaged property ~ стоимость незаложенного имущества unsigned ~ вчт. величина без знака use ~ потребительская стоимость utility ~ стоимость использования utilization ~ стоимость использования valley ~ значение в низшей точке кривой value важность ~ валюта (векселя), сумма векселя ~ валюта ~ мат. величина, значение ~ величина ~ выставлять вексель, трассировать ~ выставлять вексель ~ выставлять тратту ~ муз. длительность (ноты) ~ дорожить, ценить;
he values himself on his knowledge он гордится своими знаниями;
I do not value that a brass farthing = помоему, это гроша ломаного не стоит ~ значение, смысл (слова) ;
to give full value to each word отчеканивать слова ~ значение ~ оценивать ~ оценка ~ производить оценку ~ жив. сочетание света и тени в картине ~ эк. стоимость;
surplus (exchange) value прибавочная (меновая) стоимость ~ стоимость;
цена;
справедливое возмещение;
they paid him the value of his lost property они возместили ему стоимость его пропавшего имущества ~ стоимость ~ сумма векселя ~ сумма тратты ~ трассировать ~ цена ~ ценить ~ pl ценности, достоинства;
cultural values культурные ценности;
sense of values моральные критерии ~ ценность;
of no value нестоящий, не имеющий ценности;
to put much (little) value (upon smth.) высоко (низко) ценить (что-л.) ~ ценность, стоимость ~ ценность ~ эквивалент суммы векселя;
встречное удовлетворение ~ эквивалент суммы векселя ~ at point of entry стоимость в момент поступления ~ at selling price стоимость по продажной цене ~ in use потребительная стоимость ~ of bond drawn стоимость облигации с фиксированной ставкой, которая по жребию предназначена к погашению ~ of building стоимость здания ~ of building стоимость сооружения ~ of collateral стоимость залога ~ of domestic sales стоимость внутреннего товарооборота ~ of exemption сумма вычета ~ of function значение функции ~ of game вчт. цена игры ~ of human life ценность человеческой жизни ~ of imports стоимость импорта ~ of material стоимость материала ~ of money стоимость денег ~ of note стоимость банкноты ~ of note стоимость простого векселя ~ of property in litigation стоимость имущества, оспариваемого в судебном порядке ~ of ship and freight стоимость судна и груза ~ of tax deduction сумма скидки с налога ~ of vessel and freight стоимость судна и груза ~ on balance sheet date стоимость на дату представления балансового отчета vector ~ векторная величина virtual ~ действующее значение weighted ~ стат. взвешенное значение weighted ~ взвешенное значение wild ~ аномальное значение wild ~ резко отклоняющееся значение winding up ~ стоимость активов при ликвидации компании write-down ~ величина списанной стоимости write-up ~ завышенная стоимость written down ~ остаточная стоимость имущества written-up ~ стоимость списанного имущества yield ~ выход (продукта) zero salvage ~ невозможность реализации объекта основного капитала при выбытии zero salvage ~ нулевая ликвидационная стоимость zero salvage ~ нулевая стоимость объекта основного капитала при выбытии zero ~ нулевое значение -
14 NF
1) Морской термин: невоспламеняющийся продукт, NF product, non-flammable product2) Американизм: National Form, No Fun, Not Feasible3) Военный термин: No Foreign Dissemination, NOFORN, Noble Fighters, night fighter, no distribution to foreign countries, normal fire, nose fairing, nose fuze, not releasable to foreign nationals; not for foreigners, nuclear force4) Техника: natural form food, near field, neutron flux, night photography, no fluid5) Химия: No Ferrite, нанофильтрация6) Математика: Normal Finite8) Грубое выражение: Nise Fucken9) Политика: Norfolk Island10) Сокращение: NOFORN, National Front, Newfoundland, Noise Factor, Noise Figure, Noise Frequency, nanofarad, near face, nose fuse, National fine (thread)11) Физиология: Nonvisual Function12) Электроника: Non Filtered13) Нефть: fast neutron log, natural flow, no flow, no fluorescence, естественный поток (natural flow), флуоресценция отсутствует (no fluorescence), флюид отсутствует (no fluid), фонтанирование (natural flow)14) Генетика: "nombre fundamental"15) Картография: national forest16) Банковское дело: без покрытия (надпись на чеке; no funds)17) Транспорт: Number Of Flights18) Пищевая промышленность: National Formulation, Nice Fink19) Деловая лексика: без покрытия (надпись на чеке, no funds)20) Бурение: естественное течение (natural flow), естественный приток (natural flow)21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: fine thread, nut female22) Инвестиции: no funds23) Полимеры: nonflexible24) Автоматика: nonferrous25) Фармация: National Formulary26) Должность: Non Filled, Not Final27) Чат: Newbie Forums28) Федеральное бюро расследований: Norfolk Field Office29) Единицы измерений: Nano Farad -
15 NFA
1) Общая лексика: No Fixed Abode (без определенного места жительства)2) Компьютерная техника: Nondeterministic Finite Automata, Nondeterministic Finite Automaton3) Американизм: National Fire Academy5) Военный термин: Naval Fuel Annex, Night Fighter Association, No Forwarding Address, new fighter aircraft, new firing azimuth, no-fire area6) Сельское хозяйство: New Farmers Of America7) Религия: Now And Forever Angels8) Юридический термин: National Firearms Act, No Fixed Address9) Экономика: ЧМА, чистые международные активы10) Биржевой термин: Net Financial Assets11) Металлургия: National Foundry Association12) Музыка: National Flute Association13) Сокращение: Net Free Area14) Университет: Norwich Free Academy15) Вычислительная техника: Name Field Address (Forth)16) Банковское дело: Национальная фьючерсная ассоциация (США; National Futures Association)17) Фирменный знак: National Franchisee Association18) Инвестиции: National Futures Association19) Общественная организация: National Federation Application, National Fibromyalgia Association20) Должность: No Future Advancement, No Future Ambition -
16 Nf
1) Морской термин: невоспламеняющийся продукт, NF product, non-flammable product2) Американизм: National Form, No Fun, Not Feasible3) Военный термин: No Foreign Dissemination, NOFORN, Noble Fighters, night fighter, no distribution to foreign countries, normal fire, nose fairing, nose fuze, not releasable to foreign nationals; not for foreigners, nuclear force4) Техника: natural form food, near field, neutron flux, night photography, no fluid5) Химия: No Ferrite, нанофильтрация6) Математика: Normal Finite8) Грубое выражение: Nise Fucken9) Политика: Norfolk Island10) Сокращение: NOFORN, National Front, Newfoundland, Noise Factor, Noise Figure, Noise Frequency, nanofarad, near face, nose fuse, National fine (thread)11) Физиология: Nonvisual Function12) Электроника: Non Filtered13) Нефть: fast neutron log, natural flow, no flow, no fluorescence, естественный поток (natural flow), флуоресценция отсутствует (no fluorescence), флюид отсутствует (no fluid), фонтанирование (natural flow)14) Генетика: "nombre fundamental"15) Картография: national forest16) Банковское дело: без покрытия (надпись на чеке; no funds)17) Транспорт: Number Of Flights18) Пищевая промышленность: National Formulation, Nice Fink19) Деловая лексика: без покрытия (надпись на чеке, no funds)20) Бурение: естественное течение (natural flow), естественный приток (natural flow)21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: fine thread, nut female22) Инвестиции: no funds23) Полимеры: nonflexible24) Автоматика: nonferrous25) Фармация: National Formulary26) Должность: Non Filled, Not Final27) Чат: Newbie Forums28) Федеральное бюро расследований: Norfolk Field Office29) Единицы измерений: Nano Farad -
17 nf
1) Морской термин: невоспламеняющийся продукт, NF product, non-flammable product2) Американизм: National Form, No Fun, Not Feasible3) Военный термин: No Foreign Dissemination, NOFORN, Noble Fighters, night fighter, no distribution to foreign countries, normal fire, nose fairing, nose fuze, not releasable to foreign nationals; not for foreigners, nuclear force4) Техника: natural form food, near field, neutron flux, night photography, no fluid5) Химия: No Ferrite, нанофильтрация6) Математика: Normal Finite8) Грубое выражение: Nise Fucken9) Политика: Norfolk Island10) Сокращение: NOFORN, National Front, Newfoundland, Noise Factor, Noise Figure, Noise Frequency, nanofarad, near face, nose fuse, National fine (thread)11) Физиология: Nonvisual Function12) Электроника: Non Filtered13) Нефть: fast neutron log, natural flow, no flow, no fluorescence, естественный поток (natural flow), флуоресценция отсутствует (no fluorescence), флюид отсутствует (no fluid), фонтанирование (natural flow)14) Генетика: "nombre fundamental"15) Картография: national forest16) Банковское дело: без покрытия (надпись на чеке; no funds)17) Транспорт: Number Of Flights18) Пищевая промышленность: National Formulation, Nice Fink19) Деловая лексика: без покрытия (надпись на чеке, no funds)20) Бурение: естественное течение (natural flow), естественный приток (natural flow)21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: fine thread, nut female22) Инвестиции: no funds23) Полимеры: nonflexible24) Автоматика: nonferrous25) Фармация: National Formulary26) Должность: Non Filled, Not Final27) Чат: Newbie Forums28) Федеральное бюро расследований: Norfolk Field Office29) Единицы измерений: Nano Farad -
18 nfa
1) Общая лексика: No Fixed Abode (без определенного места жительства)2) Компьютерная техника: Nondeterministic Finite Automata, Nondeterministic Finite Automaton3) Американизм: National Fire Academy5) Военный термин: Naval Fuel Annex, Night Fighter Association, No Forwarding Address, new fighter aircraft, new firing azimuth, no-fire area6) Сельское хозяйство: New Farmers Of America7) Религия: Now And Forever Angels8) Юридический термин: National Firearms Act, No Fixed Address9) Экономика: ЧМА, чистые международные активы10) Биржевой термин: Net Financial Assets11) Металлургия: National Foundry Association12) Музыка: National Flute Association13) Сокращение: Net Free Area14) Университет: Norwich Free Academy15) Вычислительная техника: Name Field Address (Forth)16) Банковское дело: Национальная фьючерсная ассоциация (США; National Futures Association)17) Фирменный знак: National Franchisee Association18) Инвестиции: National Futures Association19) Общественная организация: National Federation Application, National Fibromyalgia Association20) Должность: No Future Advancement, No Future Ambition -
19 case
1) оболочка; кожух, чехол; обшивка; оправа2) корпус || помещать в корпус3) ящик; коробка || упаковывать в коробки или ящики4) шкаф; камера5) авто картер6) случай; пример7) обстоятельство, дело8) представитель множества, экземпляр9) чемодан, дипломат, кейс10) полигр. наборная касса, шрифткасса11) полигр. переплётная крышка12) строит. коробка здания13) строит. штукатурить, облицовывать15) геол. корковая цементация16) геол. водоносная трещина•in the extreme case — мат. в крайнем случае; в пределе
it is just the case — это как раз и имеет место, это именно так
- job case -
20 operation
1) действие2) операция3) оперирование4) процесс, ход5) работа, функционирование6) срабатывание7) управление8) эксплуатация•- hereditarily recursive operationoperation under VFR — авиац. визуальное самолётовождение
- 1
- 2
См. также в других словарях:
Finite geometry — A finite geometry is any geometric system that has only a finite number of points. Euclidean geometry, for example, is not finite, because a Euclidean line contains infinitely many points, in fact precisely the same number of points as there are… … Wikipedia
Finite set — In mathematics, a set is called finite if there is a bijection between the set and some set of the form {1, 2, ..., n} where n is a natural number. (The value n = 0 is allowed; that is, the empty set is finite.) An infinite set is a set which is… … Wikipedia
Finite verb — A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand by their own as complete sentences.The finite … Wikipedia
Finite and Infinite Games — is a book by the philosopher James P. Carse. [cite book|author=Carse, James P.|title=Finite and Infinite Games|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York|year=|pages=|isbn=0 345 34184 8|oclc=|doi=] ummaryIn the book, Carse demonstrates a way of … Wikipedia
Finite Risk insurance — is the term applied within the insurance industry to describe an Alternative Risk Transfer product that is typically a multi year insurance contract where the insurer bears limited underwriting, credit, investment and timing risk. The assessment… … Wikipedia
Finite-difference time-domain method — Finite difference time domain (FDTD) is a popular computational electrodynamics modeling technique. It is considered easy to understand and easy to implement in software. Since it is a time domain method, solutions can cover a wide frequency… … Wikipedia
Finite model theory — is a subfield of model theory that focuses on properties of logical languages, such as first order logic, over finite structures, such as finite groups, graphs, databases, and most abstract machines. It focuses in particular on connections… … Wikipedia
Finite — is the opposite of infinite. It may refer to:* Having a finite number of elements: finite set * Being a finite number, so not equal to pminfty; all real numbers are finite * In a stronger sense, being a value that is neither infinite nor… … Wikipedia
Finite element method in structural mechanics — Finite element method (FEM) is a powerful technique originally developed for numerical solution of complex problems in structural mechanics, and it remains the method of choice for complex systems. In the FEM, the structural system is modeled by… … Wikipedia
finite — [fī′nīt΄] adj. [ME finit < L finitus, pp. of finire, FINISH] 1. having measurable or definable limits; not infinite 2. Gram. having limits of person, number, and tense: said of a verb that can be used in a predicate 3. Math. a) capable of… … English World dictionary
Finite element method — The finite element method (FEM) (sometimes referred to as finite element analysis) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as of integral equations. The solution approach is based … Wikipedia